INFLUENCES OF MISSION ON INDIGENOUS SOCIETIES
Colonizing expansion and mission were by no means identical or necessarily linked processes. Intentions and goals were based on different motivations; religious motives contrasted with political-economic goals.
Missionaries were already active in many regions before colonization, e.g. David Livingstone in South Africa from 1840 or the (Protestant) Rhenish Mission from 1842 in what later became German South West Africa.
However, German missionary activity in the period from 1880 onwards is not conceivable without a colonial context. At this time, the concept of cooperation between imperialist expansion efforts and the use of missionaries was taken for granted and no longer questioned.
Expression of the Missionary Mandate
While, on the one hand, some overzealous missionaries sought to "eradicate" the "pagan" belief systems as quickly and permanently as possible and perhaps even burn ancestral figures and other "idols", most recognized such an approach as counterproductive.
The example of Father Franziskus Leuthner from Beuron, who was sent to East Africa to support the missionary Benedictines, shows how destructive such "missionary zeal" could be. To prove the powerlessness of the "old" religion, he had the ancestral hut of the chief Mputa burned down; a short time later, Leuthner was captured, tortured and ultimately murdered by Mputa's followers during the Maji Maji Uprising (1905 - 1907).
The missionary Benedictines relied on concrete help. After the uprising, despite the murder of several members of their community, they supported the indigenous population with food, which was on the verge of starvation due to the colonial policy of "scorched earth". Conviction through one's own example and on inculturation, which the founder and his successors strongly emphasized, were further guidelines.
In Korea, for example, this not only involved learning the language (in addition to Korean as well Chinese as a scientific and textbook language), but also adapting to the country in terms of manners and customs. Most monks were non-smokers, but in Korea they never refused the pipe, which was ubiquitous in the culture during visits and official occasions; eating was done with chopsticks and sitting on the floor was also part of it, even if it caused discomfort for the monks. However, the Benedictine habit was their standard clothing; local costume was only worn for a few photos.
It would be too undifferentiated to generally attribute certain actions to mission in general or to individual Catholic missionary orders or Protestant missionary societies. Individual life stories show that the personality of the individual missionary had a decisive influence on the concrete implementation of the missionary mandate.
It should also be borne in mind that the situation at that time should not be assessed according to today's standards; an assessment only makes sense from a position that takes into account the historical background and circumstances, especially the change in the Catholic mission concept after 1919.
Mission and Culture Change
Whatever ethnic groups missionaries encountered, they always transported European culture along with the religious message. The missionary ideal of "saving souls" acquired a social dimension, which the missionary Benedictines of St. Ottilien were also aware of: the "implantation of the church" as an impulse from contemporary missionary theology came with the (Benedictine-influenced) building of Christian civilization.
On the one hand, this contact led to the enrichment and further development of the indigenous societies in agriculture, crafts, trade, etc. Technologies common in Europe were used, crop yields were increased and production processes were optimized.
The health care system established by the missionaries reduced infant mortality and deaths from curable diseases among the native population, against which the native herbalists and sorcerers were powerless. The belief in illness as a "bewitchment" caused by ill-intentioned fellow human beings was slowly weakened.
On the other hand, a change in values and culture also began, which questioned or caused the disappearance of the previous structures of families, village communities and the chiefdom and had a major impact on language, local politics, morals, law and traditional religion.
Mission and Education System
The missionary Benedictines began their work in German East Africa in 1887 by buying the freedom of child slaves, whom they took into their own orphanages and schools, trained and familiarized with the Catholic faith.
In general, the promotion of the mission schools involved great personal commitment on the part of the missionaries. Many parents refused to allow their offspring to participate because education was of no value beyond traditional knowledge. In addition, such children were considered "lost to the Europeans" because they no longer took their place as workers, co-breadwinners and supporters of family units.
Due to the better training of mission students, a new two-class system emerged. After completing their training, boys and girls were often no longer able to fit into the social structure of the village community; they were based on European values and perceived their own culture as "backward". These graduates tried to find their place in the system of colonial administration - which was not always successful and primarily affected their economic situation and position in the traditional social structure.
In many cases, the training content in the mission schools was too theoretical and not tailored to the specific needs of the local population. The missionaries were also generally not trained educators; disobedience or lack of motivation was often severely punished, and many students left school again. Sons of the indigenous elite in particular felt compelled to violate taboos related to their social rank during their training (wearing European clothing, eating certain foods) and were in no way prepared to accept punishment for misbehavior.
On the other hand, indigenous elites tried to create a basis for themselves in the colonial system by specifically supporting mission schools in their territory.
The Christian principle of equality initially benefited women, slaves and other marginalized groups. Through the imparting of European education, a class of intellectuals gradually emerged, some of whom studied in Europe. Many freedom fighters on the path to independence had previously attended mission schools.
Structures of Christianization
In the Catholic milieu, conversion to Christianity usually happened on a voluntary basis. However, it should be remembered that living as a Christian had significant advantages in terms of education, healthcare and employment. There was also the subtle pressure to conform to the religion of the colonizers. It therefore depended heavily on the individual whether the conversion was due to religious conviction or rather out of a certain opportunism.
Many nevertheless experienced the Christian religion as liberation from the dark side of the indigenous faith, which included malevolent spirits, witchcraft, magic and divine judgments. Rituals such as headhunting, widow burning and cannibalism disappeared.
The missionaries always aimed to form communities, i.e. to achieve widespread conversion. They held a leadership position and were able to make many decisions on site independently. At the same time, however, they were subject to the control of the missionary society or order in their home country.
The new converts were integrated into the structures of the mission; they lived partly on the premises of a mission station and worked as assistants in its construction and operation. In many cases, this work was not adequately compensated.
The missionaries were also committed to the official church, but not in an unconditional way. When the Vatican banned the initiation, which is so important for the East African coastal region, the missionary Benedictines found ways to circumvent this ban and still enable the locals to carry out the important ceremony in a modified form, which until today not only marks the entry into adulthood, but also the full Integration into the cultural life of the community is marked.
A hierarchical structure developed with the missionaries at the leadership, the local priests, pastors and catechists, (language) teachers and community leaders (in the Protestant area, church elders or presbyters) and finally the "simple" Christians.
However, this worldview was not an end in itself, but rather, according to the missionaries, should promote the transformation of the religious, but also the cultural and social conditions of the indigenous population.
The missionaries also did not remain uninfluenced by the local culture and way of life, which was certainly desired by the missionary Benedictines through the concept of inculturation within certain limits. Some were more tolerant of indigenous religions and practices than others, which caused internal tensions.
Indigenous Christians did not have the status of European Christians. Although the local converts were considered superior to the "heathens", it was clear to the missionaries that the connection to the original religion more or less continued even after baptism. Unlike Islam, the Christian understanding of religion was less open to compromise.
A distinction was made between "good" and "bad" Christians who violated the rules of the Christian order of life by consulting medicine men and sorcerers, consulting oracles, casting spells and counter-spells, or marrying more than one woman.
Canon law sanctions in the event of a discovered violation were limited, as was control over the lives of converts. Those reprimanded had the option of adapting, continuing in secret, or converting to another Christian denomination that was supposedly less "strict". The last step was to finally turn one's back on the Christian religion and return to the old belief system.
For a long time, the management of mission monasteries and stations by European missionaries was considered indispensable because a takeover by locals threatened to distort Christian standards. Even among the missionary Benedictines, the convents were initially only staffed by Europeans. After the division and creation of two states, a new native convention was founded in South Korea. In South Africa, the first locals joined the communities in 1965. Today, no "white" monk has been active in the leadership of non-European monasteries for many years.
Mission Criticism
With the independence of the colonized states, mission criticism increasingly developed, which also left its mark on mission research. From the 1960s onwards, scientists without a missionary or Christian background - and without knowledge of the religious and cultural aspects of missionary activity - increasingly joined the debate. A mission-critical tone predominates here, evaluating the phenomenon from a historical perspective.
However, mission cannot be perceived as an instrument of imperialism that supports the colonial governments' claim to power by alienating the native population from their culture.
Nor does cultural change happen through mission alone. Cultural change began as early as the first European expansion movements in the 15th century. Contact with European civilization could occur on a religious basis, but was predominantly motivated by economic and political interests.
A scientific approach to a culture such as contact through anthropologists brings with it external influences, as does development aid. More recently, tourism in particular has made a significant contribution to influencing culture.
In the age of globalization, only a few communities worldwide exist without contact with "civilization". These groups have neither a lobby nor rights and are sidelined when it comes to economic considerations.
Many critics emphasize that the mission as a "church of whites" greatly supported alienation. The local population was confronted with the way of life and norms of the Europeans, which were considered a new standard but did not allow them an equal place. The Christian maxim of the equality of all people was not credibly implemented; local priests and catechists did not have the same status as their white ministers when it came to proclaiming the faith. Some authors therefore speak of colonial mimicry (repetition of European norms by the colonized).
During the decolonization processes, the term 'partnership' emerged in the churches, which suggested cooperation on equal terms. However, some authors see the concept of financial, personnel and social-charitable support for the "southern churches" by the global north as a continuation of the European power position.
The task of the mission is to develop a concept of partnership in dialogue with the local churches without supporting neo-colonial structures.